Timing in Nature - Phenology

Phenology is the study of the timing of biological events in plants and animals, such as flowering, leafing, migration, and breeding, in relation to seasonal and environmental changes. In ecology, phenology is used in several important ways:

1. Tracking Ecosystem Responses to Climate Change: Changes in phenological events (e.g., earlier blooming of flowers, shifts in migration times) can indicate how ecosystems are responding to climate change. Ecologists monitor these shifts to understand the broader impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem health.
2. Understanding Species Interactions: Phenology helps ecologists study how the timing of different species' activities align. For example:
• Plant-pollinator interactions: If plants bloom earlier but pollinators (like bees) don't emerge earlier, it can disrupt pollination.
• Predator-prey dynamics: If prey species hatch earlier but predators are not synchronized, it may affect survival rates.

3. Assessing Ecosystem Productivity: Phenology is used to estimate the timing and duration of growing seasons, which influences primary productivity (the amount of plant growth) in ecosystems. This information is vital for understanding carbon cycles and ecosystem functioning.
4. Wildlife and Conservation Management: Knowing the phenology of species helps in planning conservation efforts and managing wildlife populations. For instance, understanding breeding seasons can guide habitat protection efforts.
5. Predicting Ecological Shifts: Long-term phenological data can be used to predict future changes in ecosystems, such as shifts in species distributions or changes in ecosystem services like crop pollination and water availability.
6. Monitoring Ecosystem Health: Sudden or abnormal shifts in phenological patterns can serve as indicators of environmental stress or ecological disturbances (e.g., drought, pollution).

By integrating phenology into ecological research, scientists gain insights into how organisms and ecosystems respond to environmental variability and change, which is crucial for developing strategies to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem resilience.

Phenology is also a valuable tool for the home gardener when planning and planting vegetables, as it aligns gardening activities with natural seasonal changes rather than fixed calendar dates. Traditional planting schedules often rely on estimated frost dates, which can vary from year to year due to unpredictable weather patterns. By observing natural cues—such as the blooming of trees and flowers, the return of migratory birds, or the emergence of insects— you can determine the optimal time to plant specific vegetables. For example, many gardeners use the blooming of forsythia as a sign that it is time to plant cool-season crops like peas, spinach, and lettuce, while the blooming of lilacs indicates the right conditions for planting warm-season crops such as tomatoes, peppers, and beans.

Forsythia

Phenology also helps a gardener stagger plantings for continuous harvests. Many vegetables, such as lettuce, radishes, and carrots, benefit from successive planting every few weeks to provide a steady supply throughout the season. By observing phenological cues, a gardener can determine the best times to start new plantings based on weather patterns and plant growth stages, rather than following a rigid schedule. This strategy maximizes garden productivity and ensures a steady stream of fresh produce.

In addition to planting, phenology can guide a you in companion planting and pest control. Certain pests, such as cabbage moths or squash vine borers, emerge at specific times of the year based on temperature and plant development. By monitoring natural indicators—such as when specific wildflowers bloom or insects appear—you can take proactive measures like covering crops, introducing beneficial insects, or planting pest-repelling companion plants at the right time. This approach reduces the reliance on pesticides and promotes a healthier, more sustainable vegetable garden.

Squash Vine Borer (Milittia satyrinformis)

By integrating phenology into your gardening practices, a gardener can create a more efficient and resilient vegetable garden. Observing seasonal changes and natural cues allows for smarter planting decisions, better pest management, and improved yields, all while working in harmony with nature.

Additional Resources

USA National Phenology Network

Phenology - University of Wisconsin Extension

Phenology Study - Aldo Leopold Foundation

Using Phenology for Ornamental Pest Control - University of Illinois Extension

Step-by-step guide for Starting Seeds Indoors

 

Seed Covers

1. Plan Ahead

Before you start, make sure you know your planting zone and the average last frost date for your area. This will help you determine when to start your seeds indoors, ensuring they are ready to be transplanted outside at the right time.

• Average Last Frost Date: Research the expected date for your region.
• Seed-Starting Schedule: Check the seed packet or consult a gardening resource for the ideal indoor start date for each plant. Generally, seeds should be started indoors 6-8 weeks before the last frost date.

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2. Gather Supplies

You’ll need the following items to start seeds indoors:

• Seed trays or pots: Choose containers with drainage holes.
• Seed-starting mix: A light, well-draining soil mix designed for seedlings (avoid garden soil, as it’s too heavy).
• Seeds: Select the varieties you want to grow. Ensure they’re suited to your growing zone.
• Labels: To keep track of which seeds are in which pots or trays.
• Watering can or spray bottle: To gently water seeds.
• Grow lights or natural light: If you don’t have enough natural light, supplemental grow lights will help.
• Heating mat (optional): For warmth-loving plants like tomatoes and peppers.
• Humidity dome (optional): Helps maintain moisture and warmth in the early stages.

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3. Prepare Containers and Soil

• Fill your seed trays or pots with the seed-starting mix, leaving about half an inch at the top of each container. Gently pat down the soil to remove air pockets, but don’t compress it too much.
• Water the soil thoroughly until it’s moist but not soggy, and allow the excess water to drain out.

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4. Plant the Seeds

• Follow seed packet instructions: Each seed has specific requirements for planting depth and spacing. Generally, small seeds are planted shallow (1/8–1/4 inch deep), while larger seeds are planted deeper (1/2–1 inch deep).
• Label the containers: Write down the seed variety and the planting date on a plant marker or label to avoid confusion later.

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5. Create the Right Environment

• Heat: Many seeds, especially warm-season crops (tomatoes, peppers), require a warm environment to germinate. Place containers on a heat mat or in a warm, consistent location (70–75°F or 21–24°C).
• Humidity: Cover the containers with a humidity dome or plastic wrap to retain moisture. Once seeds sprout, remove the cover to prevent mold growth.
• Light: Place your containers in a location with 12-16 hours of light per day. If natural light is insufficient, use grow lights set 2–4 inches above the seedlings. Keep grow lights on for 12-16 hours per day, and keep the lights a few inches above the plants to prevent them from becoming leggy.

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6. Water and Monitor

• Watering: Keep the soil consistently moist but not soggy. Use a spray bottle or gentle watering can to avoid disturbing seeds. Once seeds germinate, water at the base of the plant to prevent mold and mildew from forming on the leaves.
• Air Circulation: Avoid overwatering and ensure good air circulation to prevent disease. A small fan on a low setting can help strengthen seedlings.
• Monitor Growth: Keep an eye out for healthy growth, watching for leaves emerging, and look for any signs of pests or disease.

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7. Thin Seedlings

Once seedlings have developed their first set of true leaves (after the initial seed leaves), thin them out by carefully snipping the weaker plants at soil level, leaving the strongest one in each container. This prevents overcrowding and ensures that each plant has enough room and nutrients to grow.

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8. Harden Off the Seedlings

Before transplanting seedlings outside, they need to be gradually acclimated to outdoor conditions—a process known as "hardening off."

• Start 7–10 days before transplanting: Begin by placing your seedlings outside for 1–2 hours each day, gradually increasing the time each day and exposing them to more sunlight and wind. This helps them adapt to the harsher outdoor environment.
• Weather Considerations: Avoid hard frosts or extreme weather during the hardening-off period. On windy or very sunny days, you can place seedlings in a sheltered area.

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9. Transplanting Outdoors

Once your seedlings are hardened off and the danger of frost has passed, it’s time to transplant them into your garden.

• Choose a Cloudy Day: If possible, transplant on a cloudy day or in the evening to reduce transplant shock.
• Prepare the Soil: Ensure that the outdoor soil is well-prepared—loosen it, add compost if needed, and ensure it's well-draining.
• Spacing: Plant the seedlings at the appropriate spacing, as outlined on the seed packet.
• Water Well: After planting, water the seedlings thoroughly to help them settle into their new home.

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10. Post-Transplant Care

• Mulch: Apply a layer of mulch around your seedlings to retain moisture, regulate soil temperature, and prevent weeds.
• Water Regularly: Continue to water seedlings regularly during the early stages of their outdoor growth.
• Monitor for Pests: Keep an eye out for pests or diseases, and take action if necessary.

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Additional Tips

• Label everything: Keep track of your varieties, planting dates, and hardening-off schedule to avoid confusion.
• Rotate crops: If you’re starting multiple types of seeds indoors, make sure to rotate your plants to give each one the best chance for healthy growth.
• Be patient: Not all seeds will germinate at the same rate. Some may take longer than others, so be patient and don’t be discouraged.

Additional Resources

Mail Order Vegetable Seed Sources for the New Jersey Gardener - NJAES Rutgers University

Bulbs, Corms, Tubers, and Rhizomes
Making Sense of the Storage Structures of Summer-Flowering Plants

When many people think of bulbs, they think of spring flowering daffodils and tulips planted in the fall. These are hardy bulbs left in the ground over the winter. However, there are also summer flowering plants coming into bloom now and in the coming months that utilize bulb and bulb-like structures.

Bulbs and bulb-like structures can be put into categories including: true bulbs, corms, tubers/tuberous roots, and rhizomes. A plant’s underground storage structure functions to store nutrients for the plant. The plant can then access these nutrients during times when it is not flowering, like during the winter, hot summers, and droughts. Understanding the difference can help you better care for and propagate your favorite plants.

Take note that most summer-flowering bulbs are not hardy, they are planted in the spring after the danger of frost has passed. In the fall when the leaves turn yellow, most may be carefully dug up and stored in a frost-free location, like a garage. Some bulbs can survive in the ground over a mild winter, but use a very heavy layer of mulch for protection. Daylilies and iris are an exception as they are hardy and can handle cold winters in the ground.

Specialized storage organs, often referred to as bulbs.
Illustration and Caption credit: University of Georgia Extension.

True Bulbs:

A true bulb comprises overlapping layers like an onion. It has a growing point at the top and basal plate at the bottom where roots grow out of. Bulbs are planted upright. The outside of a true bulb forms into “scales”. On tunicate bulbs, the scales become dry and papery, serving as a protective layer around the bulb. On non-tunicate bulbs, like a lily, the scales can break off from the basal plate.

Examples:

• Lilly
• Alliums
• Amaryllis
• Grape Hyacinth

Sprouting bulbs.
Photo credit: Cornell Cooperative Extension Rockland County

Corms:

A corm is an underground solid stem enclosed by a dry outer covering. As with true bulbs, this outer covering protects the inner layers. The plant grows from the top of the corm. Corms only grow for one season, with new corms being produced. New corms are called cormels.

Examples:

• Gladiolas
• Ranunculus
• Freesia
• Crocosmia

Gladiola corms.
Photo Credit: Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station

Rhizomes:

A rhizome is a specific kind of stem which grows near the surface of the soil. They can be determinate or indeterminate, depending on whether or not they terminate in a stem. For example, an iris is determinate because the rhizome produces one stem, while Lilly-of-the-Valley is indeterminate because the rhizome produces many shoots. Rhizomes are planted on their sides. You may be familiar with what a ginger root looks like--it’s a rhizome.

 Examples:

• Canna
• Iris
• Daylilies
• Kniphofia
• Agapanthus
• Calla Lilly
• Lilly of the Valley
• Trillium
• Liriope

Canna rhizomes.
Photo credit: UMass Amherst Extension

Iris rhizomes.
Photo Credit: University of Maryland Extension

Tubers/Tuberous Roots:

Tubers are underground, fleshy, modified stem tissue. A potato is a tuber. Tubers have nodes or “eyes” capable of growing into a separate plant.

Tuberous roots form from the swelling of roots near the base of the plant. They do not have eyes and cannot regrow from root pieces. They lack nodes but can produce buds near the stem.

Examples:

• Dahlia
• Begonia
• Caladium
• Elephant Ear
• Peony

Dahlia tuberous roots planted in April by the Rutgers Master Gardeners of Burlington County
at the Burlington County Agricultural Center.

Photo credit: Alyson Ricketts, Rutgers Master Gardener of Burlington County

References and Additional Resources:

University of Illinois Extension: “Bulbs”
https://extension.illinois.edu/flowers/bulbs

Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station: “Spring Flowering Bulbs”
https://njaes.rutgers.edu/fs1220/

Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station: “Cannas”, Fact Sheet 1155.
https://njaes.rutgers.edu/pubs/publication.php?pid=FS1155

Rutgers New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station: “Gladiolis murielae-Without Doubt a Beautiful Flower”
https://njaes.rutgers.edu/plant-of-the-month/gladiolus.php

Penn State Extension Chester County: “Bulbs, Corms, Rhizomes, and Tubers”
https://extension.psu.edu/programs/master-gardener/counties/chester/how-to-gardening-brochures/bulbs-corms-rhizomes-and-tubers

NC State Extension: “Summer and Fall-Flowering Bulbs for the Landscape”
https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/summer-and-fall-flowering-bulbs-for-the-landscape

NC State Extension: “Canna x generalis”
https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/canna-x-generalis/

University of Georgia Extension: “Flowering Bulbs for Georgia Gardens”
https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B918&title=flowering-bulbs-for-georgia-gardens

University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service: “Flowering Bulbs for Tennessee Gardens”
https://www.shelbycountytn.gov/DocumentCenter/View/1120/Flowering-Bulbs?bidId=

 

 

Squash Vine Borer - Melittia cucurbitae

Introduction

The squash vine borer (Melittia cucurbitae) (SVB)  is an insect pest of plants in the cucurbit family like jack-o'-lanterns pumpkins, summer squash, acorn squash and zucchini. The plants most susceptible to attack by squash vine borers are squash and pumpkins but all cucurbits can be attacked.   Cucumbers and melons are less susceptible.

Natural History

USDA

Life Cycle: The life cycle of the squash vine borer typically begins with adult moths emerging from pupae in the soil or plant debris. These moths are active during the warm months, usually from late spring to early fall, depending on the region.

Adult Moths: The adult moths are approximately 1 inch long with a wingspan of 1 to 1.5 inches. They have clear wings with red-brown markings. After emerging, female moths seek out suitable host plants, particularly plants in the Cucurbitaceae family, such as squash, pumpkins, zucchini, and gourds, to lay their eggs.

Adult squash vine borer, Melittia cucurbitae (Harris). Photographs by Lyle J. Buss, University of Florida.

Egg Laying: Female moths lay eggs near the base of host plant stems or on the undersides of leaves. They typically prefer young, succulent stems for oviposition.

Squash vine borer egg on the left versus squash bug eggs on the right

Larval Stage: Once the eggs hatch, the larvae (caterpillars) bore into the stems of the host plants, where they feed and develop. The larvae have a cream-colored body with a brown head and are legless. As they feed, they create tunnels within the stems, causing wilting, stunting, and eventually plant death.

Squash vine borer and damage to summer squash

Pupal Stage: When larvae are fully grown, they exit the host plant and burrow into the soil or plant debris to pupate. The pupal stage lasts for several weeks, with adult moths emerging from pupae to continue the life cycle.

Overwintering: Squash vine borers overwinter as pupae in the soil or plant debris, emerging as adult moths in the following spring or summer to begin the cycle anew.

Host Plants: While squash vine borer larvae primarily infest plants in the Cucurbitaceae family, they may occasionally feed on other plants, such as sunflowers and some ornamental gourds.

Management Strategies

Managing squash vine borers can be challenging, but there are several strategies that gardeners can employ to minimize damage and protect their squash plants:

1. Cultural Practices:

   • Crop Rotation: Avoid planting squash, pumpkins, and other susceptible plants in the same area year after year.
   • Early Planting: Plant squash crops early in the season to allow them to mature before squash vine borer populations become significant.
   • Cleanliness: Remove and destroy plant debris at the end of the growing season to reduce overwintering sites for squash vine borer pupae.

2. Physical Barriers:

   • Row Covers: Cover young plants with floating row covers to prevent adult squash vine borers from laying eggs on the stems.
   • Collars: Place physical barriers such as aluminum foil, pantyhose, or cardboard collars around the base of stems to prevent larvae from burrowing into the plant.

3. Biological Control:

   • Beneficial Insects: Encourage populations of natural enemies such as parasitic wasps and predatory insects that prey on squash vine borer eggs and larvae.
   • Nematodes: Certain species of beneficial nematodes can help control squash vine borer larvae in the soil.

4. Chemical Control:

   • Insecticides: Apply insecticides containing active ingredients such as carbaryl, permethrin, or spinosad according to label instructions when adult moths are active or when larvae are young and vulnerable. Always read the label, follow safety precautions and consider using organic options if available.
   • Systemic Insecticides: Soil-applied systemic insecticides can provide protection against squash vine borers by being absorbed by the plant and killing larvae as they feed.

5. Monitoring and Early Detection:

   • Regularly inspect plants for signs of squash vine borer activity, including wilting, frass (sawdust-like excrement) at the base of stems, and entry holes.
   • Use yellow sticky traps to monitor adult moth activity and determine when to implement control measures.

6. Hand Removal:

   • If detected early, squash vine borer larvae can be manually removed from infested stems by carefully making a small incision with a knife and extracting the larvae.

Combining multiple management strategies is often the most effective approach to control squash vine borers and protect squash crops from damage. Additionally, maintaining overall plant health through proper watering, fertilization, and disease management can help plants withstand and recover from squash vine borer infestations.

Because of a similarity in names, the squash bug and squash vine borer can easily be confused with one another.  Here are some tips for distinguishing the two insects..

Appearance: 

Squash Bug: These bugs are typically brown or gray in color and are about 1/2 inch long when fully grown. They have a distinctive shield-like shape. 

Squash Vine Borer: The adult squash vine borer belongs to the Sesiidae (clearwing) family and is a moth that resembles a wasp. It has a black body with orange markings and clear wings. The larvae, however, are white with brown heads and can grow up to 1 inch long. 

Adult Squash Vine Borer

Adult Squash Bug

Behavior: 

Squash Bug: Squash bugs primarily feed on the sap of squash plants by piercing the plant with their mouthparts. They can also transmit diseases to the plants. 

Squash Vine Borer: The adult moth lays eggs at the base of squash plants, and the larvae bore into the stems, feeding on the interior tissue. This feeding disrupts the flow of nutrients, causing the plant to wilt and eventually die. 

Damage: 

Squash Bug: Squash bugs cause damage by sucking the sap from leaves, stems, and fruit. This can lead to wilting, yellowing, and stunted growth. They can also transmit bacterial wilt, a disease that can quickly kill plants. 

Squash Vine Borer: The larvae of squash vine borers tunnel into the stems of squash plants, causing wilting, collapse, and death of the affected vines. Infested plants often exhibit sawdust-like frass at the base of the stems, which is a telltale sign of squash vine borer activity.

Additional Information

Squash Vine Borer Fact Sheet 229 - Rutgers University - NJAES

Squash Vine Borer - University of Florida - IFAS

Squash Vine Borer - UMass Extension

Life Cycle Graphic - University of Arkansas Extension

Squash Vine Borer - Biology and Management

Squash Vine Borer versus Squash Bug - University of Kentucky - Department of Entomology

Squash-Vine-Borers Chemical Controls - University of Minnesota Extension

Right Tree for the Right Place!

How to Plant New Trees in the Home Garden

As the weather warms in springtime, many home gardeners consider incorporating new trees into their landscape.  Additionally, April in many communities has been given the moniker of “Earth Month” when environmentalists celebrate by planting trees.  The importance of trees cannot be underestimated as they help improve air quality, provide wildlife habitat, control erosion, offer shade, produce fruit, and are also visually pleasing. Trees are an integral part of our everyday lives.

However, the most important thing to keep in mind is to plant the right tree in the right place. The decisions regarding what kind and where to plant trees should be given careful consideration. Since trees are meant to be long-term fixtures of an environment, taking steps at planting time to ensure healthy growth and longevity is essential for success.

Photo Credit: Oklahoma State University

Tree Selection:

Several factors should be considered while deciding on the type of tree best suited to the landscape. Again, pick the right tree for the right place.

Hardiness: Will the tree survive cold and hot temperatures?

Light Requirements: Does the tree require full sun or can it be grown in shade?

Water Requirements: How much water does the tree need to achieve healthy growth?

Size and Shape at Maturity: How tall and wide will the tree grow?

Ornamental Value: Is the tree visually pleasing?

Maintenance: Does the tree drop its leaves or needles in the autumn?

Use: Is the tree being used to provide privacy or block something unsightly? Is the tree being used to produce food? Will it help with erosion control?

Native/Non-Native/Invasive: Will the tree be part of a landscape with other natives? Could the tree be potentially invasive?

·

 Purchasing Trees:

Trees can be purchased in either in a container, balled with burlap and twine, or bare root. Bare root trees do not have any dirt attached to their roots making it easier to buy from mail-order nurseries. Bare root trees must be planted before they break dormancy in the spring or planted in the late fall after leaf drop. Balled and burlapped trees have the soil and roots contained within the burlap. Trees in containers have been dug and then placed in the pot with soil or potting mix.

 Site Selection:

Consider the space you have above the ground. Be mindful of what size the tree will be at maturity. Don’t plant too close to surrounding structures, other trees, or powerlines. Also consider the space you have below ground for the roots to grow out. Be mindful of the depth of your soil as well as proximity to buildings, sidewalks, and roadways. A proper site will give the tree access to adequate water and sunlight. A soil test may be used to assess the soil pH and available nutrients.

 Timing:

The best time to plant trees is in the fall after the tree has gone dormant or spring before the buds begin to open. Do not attempt to plant trees when the ground is frozen solid or during the heat of summer when water loss may become an issue. Planting should be done when temperatures are moderate.

Planting:

Planting depth is very important . A hole should be dug two to three times the diameter of the root ball and only just as deep. The basal flare (where the roots meet the trunk) should not be covered with soil. The flare should sit just above the soil line. Beware of planting trees too deeply. Sometimes the root ball can settle after planting, resulting in the trunk becoming covered with soil. If the roots are balled, remove the twine and burlap before placing the tree in the hole to free up the roots. With potted trees, it may be necessary to gently loosen pot bound roots before planting to avoid girdling.

When placing soil back into the hole, use the original/native soil. It is not recommended to use compost, fertilizer, or potting mix because the added nutrients will eventually constrain root growth. Water thoroughly after planting. Allow to soil to settle in around the roots. Create a basin around the tree by creating a planting berm (a few inches tall) with soil for water retention.

Do not prune trees at planting time as leaves will help the tree develop a better root system. If high winds are an issue at the site, consider staking the tree to prevent the root ball from moving.

 

Figure Credit: University of New Hampshire Extension Fact Sheet,
“Planting and Mulching Trees and Shrubs”, Cathy Neal, Extension Professor/Specialist

Watering:

Regular watering is required, especially during hot and dry months until the tree has time to get established. Keep in mind trees need several years of steady moisture to maintain proper health. The soil around the root ball should be kept moist, but not waterlogged. Monitor the soil moisture to ensure it is not over or underwatered.

Mulching:

Several inches of mulch may be used to suppress weeds and preserve soil moisture. However, keep mulch a few inches away from the trunk to limit bark decay and discourage overwintering rodents.  Do not over-mulch trees or create a “volcano” like mound at the base. This will lead to slow growth and decline by stressing the tree. Mulch can deprive the tree of oxygen and trap excessive moisture against the root flare.

 

Mulch piled against a trunk.
Caption and photo credit: Rutgers University Extension Fact Sheet 099,
“Problems with Over-mulching Trees and Shrubs”

Pruning:

Keep in mind that many trees will need proper pruning at some point in order to remove dead or diseased wood and to maintain the tree’s shape. Depending on the age and size of the tree, different pruning methods and tools may apply. Research the type of tree you have and the proper way to prune it. For example, fruit trees have different pruning needs than other trees. Do not climb into trees, rather leave this type of work for a certified arborist.

 

 Additional Information:

Rutgers University Agricultural Extension: “Transplanting Trees and Shrubs”
https://njaes.rutgers.edu/pubs/publication.php?pid=fs376

Rutgers University Agricultural Extension: “Problems with Over-Mulching Trees and Shrubs”
https://njaes.rutgers.edu/fs099/

Penn State Extension: “Pruning Landscape Trees”
https://extension.psu.edu/pruning-landscape-trees

University of New Hampshire Extension: “Planting and Mulching Trees and Shrubs Fact Sheet”
https://extension.unh.edu/resource/planting-and-mulching-trees-and-shrubs-fact-sheet

The Arbor Day Foundation: “Planting the Right Tree in the Right Place”
https://arbordayblog.org/treeplanting/need-know-planting-right-tree-right-place/

Trees Are Good: “Tree Owner Information”
https://www.treesaregood.org/treeowner